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CORRECT GRAVITATIONAL REDSHIFT
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) May 7, 2016 Historically, the gravitational redshift from high-gravity stars was predicted by John Michell in 1783 and Laplace in 1796, using Newton's idea of light having mass (see my “Newton’s concepts”). Newton predicted that some stars would have a gravity so strong that light would not be able to escape. The effect of gravity on light was then explored by Soldner (1801), who calculated the amount of deflection of a light ray by the sun, arriving at the Newtonian predictions. After the quantum theory of light, (Planck1900), and once it became accepted that light consists of spinning photons having energy hν and mass m = hν/c2 it was clear that the frequency of light with the velocity c parallel to the gravitational force of Newton's well-established law of gravity should change from place to place under the gravitational forces on the photon mass. ( See my “DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS”). However, although nature works in only one way, as early as 1907 Einstein tried to find a way for the modification of the well-established law of gravity by showing dissatisfaction with his invalid special relativity (1905) in which he used not the law of the absorption of photons but hypothetical relative velocities with respect to a randomly moving observer. On the other hand despite the rejection of the Maxwellian ether by the Michelson -Morley experiment (1887) in favor of Newton's particles of light, Einstein influenced by wrong Maxwell’s fields moving through a fallacious ether(1865) tried to modify the well-established laws of Newton under his massless quanta of fields. Therefore in his invalid general relativity (1915) he reintroduced an “ether structure” or introduced a “curvature of space-time” with fallacious gravitational fields or wrong gravitational waves. Under this physics crisis I presented at the interanational conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (Olympia 1993) my paper “Impact of Maxwell’s equation of displacement current on electromagnetic laws and comparison of the Maxwellian waves with our model of dipolic particles” The conference was organized by the natural philosophers M. Barone ans F. Selleri who awarded me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus becaus at that paper I showed that LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS INVALIDATE FIELDS AND RELATIVITY . It is of interest to note that my discovery of dipole photons led to my discovery of the PHOTON-MATTERINTERACTION which invalidates Einstein’s massless quanta of fields responsible for the development of various fallacious hypotheses in special and general relativity.(EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY). Under such false ideas Einstein in 1911 considered an accelerating box, and noted that according to his invalid general relativity, the clock rate at the bottom of the box was slower than the clock rate at the top by using not his ideas of the invalid special relativity (1905) but Newton’s discovery (1687) that a constant inertial mass Mo is equal to the gravitational mass. (Einstein’s equivalence principle). So, Einstein supposed that light pulses from a monochromatic source on the ceiling are detected at the floor. To determine the influence of the gravitational force on the massless quanta fields he made use of the so-called equivalence principle and considered what would be observed if the box were in a gravity- free environment but accelerated upward with acceleration g. He also assumed that at the instant the pulse of light is emitted, the source is at rest. If the height of the box is H, the time required for light to traverse the distance to the detector is t = H/c and the velocity of the detector at the instant the light pulse strikes it is, therefore υ = gt = gH/c Since the detector approaches the source with this velocity, the wave should be Doppler-sifted of the Newtonian mechanics to higher frequency . Note that this formula was derived not only from the Doppler effect of the Newtonian mechanics but also from Newton’s second law under the discovery of the constant inertial mass Mo. ( See my “Newton’s concepts”). Under this condition Einstein wrote Δν/ν = υ/c = gH/c2 In that formula derived not from special relativity but from Newton’s well-established second law F = Moα or Fg = Mog one sees that the shift is toward higher frequency, i.e., toward the “blue”. However if the source is located on the floor and the detector attached to the ceiling, the frequency measured at the detector is shifted toward lower values, i,e., toward the “red”. In other words Einstein using Newton’s second law and the Doppler effect of the Newtonian mechanic tried to find a simple method to prove how a massless quantum of fields could be affected by the gravitational force. Nevertheless much more later (1938) Einstein recognized that photons do have mass. For example in his book “The Evolution of Physics” (page 234) we read: “A beam of light carries energy and energy has mass. But every inertial mass is attracted by the gravitational field, as inertial and gravitational masses are equivalent. A beam of light will bend in a gravitational field exactly as a body would if thrown horizontally with a velocity equal to that of light”. Under this condition I presented at the international conference “Frontiers of Fundamental Physics (1993) my paper of dipole photons which have not only opposite charges but also mass m = hν/c2. So adding the Planck constant h and the photon mass m = hν/c2 in Einstein’s formula of the redshift we could write hΔν/hν = υ/c = mgH/mc2 or hΔν = mgH and hν = mc2. Moreover using Newton’s own formulation of the second law, that the force acting on a body is equal to the change of its quantity of motion called momentum p = mu (product of mass and velocity) we may write Fg = dp/dt = d(mu)/dt. This is a simple generalization arising naturally from observations in collisions, in which a sudden blow produces a finite change of motion in a short period of time. Note that for a dipole photon operating at c with electric attraction equal to magnetic repulsion, that is Fe = Fm , the velocity c of light in free space cannot be affected by Fg and remains constant. In the direction of the velocity c the speed of light is the result of the attractive Fe which is equal to the repulsive Fm . This equality gives the velocity c which is always perpendicular to the vectors of Fe and Fm . Whereas the speed c of a photon moving through the air is reduced, because the opposite charges of photons cause a polarization of molecules, which reduce the attractive electric forces of photons. In general, for a photon of mass m = hν/c2 moving in free space since u = c we may use the second law of Newton as: Fgds = dw = c(dm/dt)ds = dmc2 or dw/dm = c2 = hν/m This formula is very important because it unifies the gravity with the forces of electromagnetism.(See my “DISCOVERY OF UNIFIED FORCES”). Moreover it leads to the calculation of the gravitational frequency shift Δν by using a small height H on the surface of the earth with g = 9.8 m/s2 . Since the photon has a variable mass m = hν/c2 '''the potential energy mgH can be transformed into the energy hΔν. Thus we write: mgH = hΔν. Then comparing it with mc2 = hν one gets Δν/ν = gH/c2 That is, the gravitational interaction explains the gravitational frequency shift, by using Newton’s second law. Surprisingly we see also that the gravitational force Fg acting at a distance on the mass m of photons is able to give the same result dw/dm = c2 which means that, under the quantum physics, gravity and electromagnetism are unified correctly. So they led to my discovery of unified forces acting at a distance of the well-established laws. Whereas, Einstein in his later years under his false massless quanta of fields sought to unify the hypothetical electromagnetic and gravitational fields without success. This is the well-known gravitational blue shift when a photon moves toward a massive star. That is, because of the '''variable photon mass, which differs fundamentally from the constant inertial mass of particles, one observes a blue shift energy hΔν. Note that Einstein in his invalid general relativity used incorrectly his relativistic accelerations of particles which lead to complications, because he believed that in nature there is a universal principle of relativity giving always his relativistic accelerations. So, under such wrong axioms he thought that the fundamental Newtonian accelerations in gravity are a limited case of his conclusions. In fact, we can see just the opposite situation, because applications of Newton’s laws give the general correct results of both the kinetic energy of particles and the gravitational frequency shift of a photon when the velocity c is parallel to the gravitational force Fg: In this case of the variable photon mass we observe also a length contraction and a time dilation because the gravitational force cannot contribute to the acceleration of photon along the constant velocity c. Thus any acceleration will approach to zero under a length contraction and a time dilation. However when the velocity c is perpendicular to c the gravitational force, according to Galileo’s discoveries, contributes to the acceleration of the photon along the direction which is perpendicular to c. Of course this case predicted by Newton is the well known bending of light confirmed by Soldner in 1801. On the other hand the gravitational frequency shift Δν/ν for light emitted at the surface of a massive star, like a NEUTRON STAR '''or a '''BLACK HOLE , is very important because in general gH leads to the GM/R, where M is the great mass of the neutron star and R is its radius. In this case it is well-known that M of a neutron star is greater than the mass of our sun, while the R is much smaller. Note that Einstein in his general relativity proposed that such a sufficiently compact mass will deform space and time to form a neutron star or a black hole. Moreover Einstein suggested incorrectly that on the cosmic scale his curvature of vacuum might have the effect of making the universe finite though unbounded. In fact, the formation of a neutron star is due to the characteristic long-ranged gravitational attractions which are very important in very massive stars. In my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2002) I showed that the neutron stars are formed when the long-ranged gravitational attraction overcomes the short-ranged repulsions between neutrons. The opposite situation is observed in very heavy nuclei, where the long-ranged electric repulsions of protons overcome the short-ranged electromagnetic attractions of the proton-neutron systems and lead to the decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts